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Forensic Pathologist career: salary, requirements and education

A forensic pathologist, or a medical examiner, is a trained physician whose responsability is that of determining the cause, means and circumstances of death for an individual who has died suddenly, suspiciously, unnaturally or unexpectedly.

A forensic pathology practitioner will analyze the medical history of the deceased individual and crime scene evidence and witness testimonials, perform an autopsy to assess whether death was caused by injury or disease, as well to collect further evidence from the body.

In most jurisdictions, there are five main legally recognized causes of death: natural, homicide, suicide, accident and undetermined. After his investigation is complete, a forensic pathologist is required to document his findings in a report and sometimes may be required to testify in court. As such forensic pathologists are often crucial witnesses in court trials involving death, as their testimony and credibility can help determine a defendant’s guilt or innocence.

The work in this field is hard, the hours long, and the responsibilities numerous. It’s a tough job by all means, and considering a forensic pathologist has to deal with people past away on a day to day basis, this is not a career for the weak of heart, or stomach moreover! However, not only is the career prospect incredibly appealing and the paycheck makes up for the efforts and sacrifices, a forensic pathologist actually makes a difference in the world.

Here’s a great short video which explains in a nutshell what a forensic pathologist job entails.

The role of the forensic pathologist and forensic DNA testing

DNA testing is an integral part of the job for a forensic pathologist. The forensic pathologist is not however, directly involved in the DNA testing process but they play an important role in collecting the required samples for toxicology testing and possibly for other laboratory tests such as DNA typing. In cases of exhumations, a forensic pathologist would be directly involved as he or she would need to determine the most viable tissues or organs to collect, the best way of collecting these as well as the amount of tissue that would yield enough DNA for identification. In cases of mass disasters such as fires, earthquakes and bombings, Disaster Victim Identification or DVI is crucial as the victims may be unrecognisable via direct facial recognition. Correctly identifying the victims via DNA testing is very important, it not only help the grieving friends and relatives cope with their loss, but could also be indispensible for insurance reasons – the post-mortem samples collected from the deceased may be used in DNA extraction (although other types of identification can be used including dental examinations, finger prints, tattoos etc). Once samples are collected from victims, alleged relatives may then in turn also have their DNA samples collected. DNA analysts will then confirm whether the similarity between the DNA profiles between the victim and their living relatives is enough to confirm they are biological relatives, thereby helping to confirm their identity. If the living relatives are direct relatives, such as a parent and an offspring, identification is more straightforward as the amount of shared DNA markers will be higher than between more distant relatives. Disaster Victim Identification and DNA profiling is carried out by companies, such as , that offer advanced forensic testing capabilities, and thus are able to extract DNA from even the most challenging samples.

Many genetic or hereditary disorders can be identified through autopsy. Once detected by the pathologist, this information can be made available to family members can be alerted to any potential risk to surviving family members. Family members may then carry out genetic predisposition DNA testing or preconception genetic testing in cases of couples planning a baby, and determine whether they have inherited the disease causing gene. A genetic councillor will help assess, based upon the results of the test, the risk of developing the disease over the course of a person’s life.

Forensic Pathologist Education Requirements

To become a forensic pathologist, typically one has to go through minimum of 13 years of post high school education and training. Considering this career heavily relies on biology, chemistry, physics, and other core sciences, an aspirant must have strong aptitude for science.

The first step is to get an undergraduate degree in a medical or science discipline, before completing a four-year medical school program to become a M.D. During your undergraduate education, you may choose whatever major you like, but keep in mind that certain classes are required for admission to medical school. Be sure to thoroughly research your post-undergrad options and requirements, which vary from institution to institution, before choosing your bachelor curriculum. Read our list of forensic pathology schools.

After you graduate from med school, you will be required to pass a licensing exam to become a M.D. Hopefully, after you’ve become a licensed M.D., you’ll be ready to enroll in a four-year residency in anatomic and clinical pathology. An extra one-year of forensic pathology residency, will be required afterwards, before ultimately you’ll be allowed to attend your exams. After you pass these, you’re eligible to enter this career field.

Forensic Pathologist Salary

The educational and training requirements from above have been posted for the US, as such we’ll continue with an overview of a typical forensic pathologist’s salary in the same country. The salary of a forensic pathologist varies according to the employer and location, and most importantly on his work experience and specializations. The most you know and the more cases you solve, the higher your earning potential will be.

The average forensic pathologist salary, depending on years of experience, location, and position, falls between $80,000 and $200,000 per year. A forensic pathologist with 20+ years experience can earn as much as $272,000 a year plus insurance, vacations, and other benefits. Some forensic pathologists work in private practice or offer consultancy gigs, which usually brings in a hefty extra paycheck. If you have the determination and perseverance, you can earn quite a living in this line of criminal justice.
Also check out:
Forensic odontology salary
Forensic anthropology salary

Forensic psychology salary

Crime Scene Investigation FAQ

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What is Crime Scene Investigation (CSI)?

Crime Scene Investigation is a complex operation which basically sums elements of science, logic and, inevitably, law. The process of CSI is often long and tedious; practitioners in this somewhat inaccessible field are required to “draw” an elaborate picture of the events which have ultimately led to a crime, by means of exhaustive documentation and evidence analysis.

What is the goal of a Crime Scene Investigator?

Ultimately, the goal of a crime scene investigator is that of analyzing the empirical traces left behind at a crime scene and assert an opinion which may lead to the conviction of the perpetrator of the crime.

I’ve seen all the CSI TV shows. Is it as cool as the real thing?

The short answer would be no. The TV show is very misinformative from this point of view, and does nothing but confuse people of what the real purpose of a CSI is – remember a TV show is only entertainment. A CSI doesn’t interview suspects, a CSI is usually a civilian, not a homicide detective, and I could go on forever. For one, a CSI works his behind off at a regular basis – seeing a CSI at a crime scene for three days strait without leaving the perimeter and submitting 700 pages long reports is no rare event. It’s a highly demanding job, that pays low for the work input, and which is deprived of the glamour you see on television. It has it’s good parts, too, of course.

What is Forensic Science?

Forensic science is the application of natural sciences to matters of the law – it’s the science applied to crime scene investigation. In practice, forensic science draws upon physics, chemistry, biology, and other scientific principles and methods.

How many types of Crime Scene Investigators are there?

If you’re looking for a job as a CSI, there are a wide variety of branches and subdivisions, each imperative to the CSI process, in which civilians are employed. Read our in-depth resource regarding the various types of crime scene investigator.

How to become a Crime Scene Investigator?

CSI is a tough field of practice, but if you’re still determined to become a crime scene investigator (that’s the spirit!), there are a variety of resources available on the web, including our website, along with numerous books on the subjects which will help you prepare. Look for job openings in your region, and ask the people from your local forensics office what their job really looks like and what would be the easiest way to apply for the job in the future. Read our start-up guide on how to become a crime scene investigator.

Have a question that’s not listed here? Contact us.

Paleo CSI: earliest murder weapon ever found

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A new analysis of a very old mastodon skeleton has revelealed the earliest ‘murder weapon’ ever to be found; found in North America, this weapon is about 14.000 years old, predating any other found tool by at least 800 years.

Ever since those days, it was known that sharp objects make for excellent murder weapon; in this case, the sharp bit of bone was used to slaughter a mastodon by the day’s hunter. Even though it is not strictly a forensic case, the archaeological analysis technique is pretty similar.

“We’re fortunate that the hunter 13,800 years ago was probably trying to get that bone projectile point in between the ribs, probably trying to get at a vital organ,” said study researcher Michael Waters, an anthropologist at the Center for the Study of the First Americans at . “Maybe the mastodon flinched or his thrust was off, and he hit a rib instead and broke his bone projectile point. So it’s bad for him, and good for us.”

As most crime scene investigators notice every day, the kill wasn’t a fair fight – the animal was most likely old and sick. After dating the skeleton, they used a rather common technique in forensic osteology – a high-resolution computed tomography (CT) scan. Furthermore, researchers performed DNA testing on both the ‘victim’ and the ‘killer’

“That was even more exciting, because what that meant is whoever these hunters were that tracked down and killed the Manis Mastodon were hunting with weapons made from a previous kill,” Waters said.

However, after analyzing the forensic evidence, some researchers believe that this might not even be a murder at all.

“It is fully possible that this poor guy was not standing when killed, and might actually have been lying down and in the process of dying on his own,” Grayson said. “That would solve the problem of having someone tall enough, or up high enough, to stick it in the back.”

Forensic odontology

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Basic forensic odontology

Forensic odontology, or forensic dentistry, is a branch of forensic science dealing with the application of any dental information usable in the court of law; it mostly revolves around identification, and it deals with the handling, examination and comparison of teeth and bite marks.

Bite mark analysis

What forensic odontology does

There is a significant amount of information which can be derived solely from this discipline, including age (mostly in children), person identification, signs of violence, etc. This information is used in correlation with radiographs, ante-mortem (prior to death) and post-mortem photographs and DNA. An important part n the work of a forensic odontologist is examining bite marks. These can be applied by the attacker, or by the attacked, and in both cases are very valuable to the investigation.

Forensic dentists are responsible for six kinds of practice:

Identifying human remains
Identificationsin mass fatalities
Assessment of bite mark injuries
Assessment of cases of abuse – bite marks are very common in these cases
Civil cases involving malpractice
Age estimation

What a forensic odontologist does

The most often operation performed by a forensic odontologist is comparative identification – identifying a person involved in a tragic event by analyzing the dental record. This is extremely important in man-made or natural disasters, which can result in multiple fatalities that are often not easily identifiable; however, the same process is applied in individual fatalities.

It may not seem like much, but even one single radiograph can reveal one person’s identity, and when you think that we have 32 teeth, you can understand why forensic dentists are so sought after.

The method, even though very performant, is not one hundred percent accurate: but when you think that you can analyze four sides to every tooth, every single one with its own particularities, and add an extraction pattern, the presence of anatomic anomalies or pathology, it becomes pretty clear that it’s often reliable.

Bite mark analysis criticism

Even so, there is some criticism of bite mark analysis, even though this method has been used and improved since 1870. Recently, the conducted an investigation to see if the crime scene investigators deserve the air of infallibility that surrounds them. Their results seemed to show that this is not always the case, and that quite often, forensic odontology is especially subject to error. Also, an informal study conducted in 1999 found that there is a 63 percent rate (!) of wrong idenfications. However, most of the controversies are due to the lack of empirical evidence. For example, if you take the MedLine database from 1960–1999, only 50 papers in English were related to bite mark analysis; out of these, only 4 of them were conducted using well designed experimentation providing empirical data. Still, if nothing else, a confirmation is more than welcome.

Forensic odontology background

As I already told you, forensic odontology is the study of dental information in legal proceedings. However, it may surprise you that at the basic level, the practice goes back all the way to the year 66 AD. As the story has it, in the time of emperor Nero, his mother, Agrippina, had her soldiers kill Lollia Paulina, with instructions to bring back her head as proof that she was dead. However, she was unable to positively identify the head, but she knew Lollia had a discolored tooth; she looked at her teeth, and identified her by the teeth.

During the U.S. Revolutionary War (1775–1783), none other than Paul Revere, at the time a young dentist helped identify war casualties. Paul Revere was actually the first forensic odontologist in the United States. The first treatise on forensic odontology was written by Dr. Oscar Amoedo in 1898 and was entitled L’Art Dentaire en Medicine Legale.

Forensic odontology cases and organizations

This is in no way an exhaustive list, but here is a short list of memorable cases I found on Wikipedia:

– who was actually wrongfully convicted due to bite mark evidence.

Other forensic dentistry resources

There are currently four organizations in North America dedicated to forensic dentistry: (BOLD, in Canada), the (ABFO), (ASFO) and the International Organization for Forensic Odonto-Stomatology (IOFOS). Some other countries have their own organizations, out of which perhaps the British is the best.

Recently, due to the technological progress in the field, DNA sampling has been included as a task for a forensic odontologist. For a crime scene investigator, taking DNA samples is as common as taking pictures of the scene.

So, here it is, a short introduction to what a forensic dentist does; it is by no means a comprehensive list or a scholarly resource, but hopefully, by now you have a pretty good idea about what forensic odontology means. If there are any questions, please send them our way and we will do our best to answer them.

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Forensic Pathology

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Forensic Pathology is the branch of pathology which practices and studies the determining cause of death through methods of examining the corpse, in interest to the public and the courts; it can be viewed as the application of general pathology in a legal context.

There are two distinct branches of forensic pathology:

Anatomic Pathology. It is a medical specialty which deals with the morphologic evaluation of tissues removed from living or dead individuals by use of gross, microscopic, chemical, immunologic and molecular examination. Anatomic Pathology, itself has three distinct areas: autopsy pathology, surgical pathology, and cytopathology. Typically speaking, a forensic pathologist will be concerned almost exclusively with performing autopsies. On the other hand, general pathologists will mostly practice surgical pathology and cytopathology, in which specimens removed from living patients are examined. In short: it deals with structural alterations of the human body.
Clinical Pathology. A forensic pathologist working in this particular field will be responsible for quantitative and qualitative analysis and interpretation of patient specimens, including tissue, blood, urine, and other body fluids by laboratory means. The main subcategories of clinical pathology are chemistry, hematology, microbiology, blood banking, toxicology, and immunology. In short: it deals deals with laboratory examination of samples removed from the body.

A forensic pathologist ultimately determines the cause of death for people who have died unexpectedly, suddenly, or by violent means. In some parts of the world it is a basic requirement for any individual who has died unexpectedly to have an autopsy performed on them in order to prove definitely the cause of death and rule out the chance of foul play.

Human remains are treated as a separate and unique type of forensic evidence. As such, the forensic pathologist is charged to examine the human remains (post-mortem examination) and consider death scene findings. There are various instances that can occur during field work; during the examination the forensic pathologist might recover critical clues as to the manner and means of death, ranging from highly evident, like bullet wounds, to less conclusive like a wound pattern that can be matched to a weapon.

The corner stone of forensic pathology is, like stated above, the determining the cause of death. Working in the field, a specialist will either come across death succumbed from natural causes or, as most frequently encountered in the practice of forensic pathology, by trauma. The basic terminology for describing traumas in forensic pathology are:

Laceration is a tearing injury due to friction or impact with a blunt object.
Incised wound is a cutting injury due to slicing action of a blade-like object.
Puncture is a penetrating injury due to pointed object without a blade.
Abrasion is a friction injury removing superficial layers of skin.
Contusion is a bruise due to rupture or penetration of small-caliber blood vessel walls.
Gunshot wounds represent a special form of trauma, very much encountered with particular interest to forensic pathologist, as it represents a clear sign of manslaughter. By analyzing gunshot wounds, one can determine many parameters like the type of firearm used , firing distance, whether the trauma is an entry or exit wound, and the track of the projectile through the body. Wounds may be classified by distance as follows:
- Contact wound: Muzzle of gun was applied to skin at time of shooting.
- Close range (6 – 8 inches): The entrance wound is surrounded by fouling, due to gun powder particles which get stuck to the skin or cloths of the victim from the proximity.
- Intermediate range ( 6 – 8 inches to 1.5 – 3.5 feet): Hot fragments of burning gunpowder follow the bullet to the victim and produce stippling by causing pinpoint burns around the entrance wound.
- Distant (greater than 1.5 – 3.5 feet): There aren’t clear signs like in the previous distance classifications from above, like gunpowder and such, however by examining the entrance and exit wounds, a forensic pathologists can accurately determine the firing range using common means from his practice.

Become a Forensic Pathologist

If you’re looking to become a forensic pathologist, there are a number of requirements that you need to meet, and once in practice you’ll have to deal with a myriad of murder cases all the time. Some don’t have the stomach for it, but for the few willing enough to take the plunge and become a forensic pathologist, the sacrifice will be worth it.

In respect of inquiries into suspicious, sudden or unexpected deaths, forensic pathologists will often work in conjunction with the appointed medical/legal representative of the area in which the investigation is taking place, typically a coroner or medical examiner.

If this very demanding field of practice, yet filled with rewards to measure, is appealing to you then you might find it useful to study our list of forensic pathology schools.

Forensic mental health

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What is forensic mental health?

Forensic mental health might seem like an awkward term, but if you split it, you’ll find its meaning: it comprises a field of people who work on mental health issues in the legal field; it is basically where mental health and the legal field overlap. That may sound a bit redundant, but hopefully I’ve made it clear.

The people working on that can be psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, legal counselors, etc. Their main job is to examine those accused of a crime to determine whether they are fit to stand trial, or the level of responsibility that some people can be held of during court.

Even though this is a multidisciplinary branch, in most of the cases, forensic mental health is mostly done by forensic psychiatrists. So, then the question rises…

What does a forensic psychiatrist do?

A forensic psychiatrist works in varied environments, most of which aren’t very pleasant however: prisons, hospitals, correction facilities, an office, courts, police stations, etc. Forensic psychiatry comprises of three branches: forensic psychiatry, psychiatry and law and clinical criminology.

Getting a degree in forensic psychiatry is no easy task: you are required to be a fully licensed psychiatrist, which requires plus at least 5 years of psychiatric training followed by an examination, but some knowledge of the law is more than welcome. Forensic mental health workers must also be present to work with suspects that appear mentally ill and apprise them of their rights.

He can also assist lawyers in trials, serve as council for a court of law, or even help with investigation. A worker in forensic mental health doesn’t have an easy job, not at all

Forensic odontology salary details

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I wrote a while ago about the forensic anthropology salary, which can vary greatly, but generally is anywhere from $37.000 to $70.000 per year, averaging at some $55.000 / year.

A forensic odontologist however, can expect a much bigger yearly income; depending on location and income, $150,000-$185,000 is a good interval. However, as I was saying, a forensic anthropologist having only this job is a rare sight – and a forensic odontologist is an even rarer one. Usually, they are just dentists with some extra qualifications that serve as consultants whenever they are needed, and there are only so many cases in which teeth are involved.

So in conclusion, this is not a full time job you should focus on, but rather a complementary field if you are a dentist, and one that can be very useful in some cases.

Also check out:

Forensic anthropology salary
Forensic pathology salary
Forensic psychology salary

Forensic Pathology Schools and Colleges

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Forensic Pathology is the branch of pathology which studies the means and manner of a death by examining the corpse, usually through autopsy. Forensic pathologists, or medical examiners as they’re sometimes called, are specially trained physicians who examine the bodies of people who died suddenly, unexpectedly, or violently. These examinations are usually performed at the request of a coroner or a medical examiner, usually in circumstances related to criminal law cases.

A forensic patologist’s main work requires him to determine he cause (the ultimate and immediate reasons for the cessation of life) and manner of death (homicide, suicide, accidental, natural, or unknown).

Forensic pathologists can identify the identity and manner of death for a deceased person after he or she:

studies the medical history,
studies the deceased medical history
takes into account circumstances and crime scene evidence, also including on-site witness statements
performs an autopsy of the body, where important evidence regarding the injury or death of the victim might be uncovered.
collects medical and trace evidence from the body for further analysis.

In addition to anatomy, the forensic pathologist may draw upon specialized knowledge and training in:

toxicology
firearms/ballistics
trace evidence
serology (blood analysis), and
DNA technology.

Forensic Pathology Career

A forensic pathologist has a very demanding work, which requires extensive medical studies before becoming one in the first place, and then much dedication.

Forensic pathologists spend most of their time in the lab, performing autopsies or examining tissue samples under the microscope. This can involve standing for extended periods and working with small tools. Much of the rest of the remaining work day is made up of official reporting, writing reports and making court appearances. A forensic pathologist will encounter each day cases which might prove to be very graphic, and in time, all though the pathologists becomes accustomed, might leave him uneased.

To become a forensic pathologist, one needs:

A bachelor’s degree
A doctor of medicine (M.D.) or a doctor of osteopathic medicine (D.O)
A residency with a program that offers a rotation in forensic pathology

A lot of these require investment of time and energy. Tipically, to become a forensic pathologist one needs on average 14 years of education, however the percs to this manner of investment might pay off.

There are, of course, a lot of benefits which do well to compensate for the various shortfalls of being a forensic examiner.

The salary of a forensic pathologist is in the six figure a year range (up to $500,000), the job outlook is excellent and stable and you’ll always have the satisfaction of knowing you’re truly making a difference in law enforcement – catching them bad guys.

Forensic Pathology Schools and Colleges by Student Population

It’s certainly not an easy job, but you’re ready to assume this kind of commitment, we’re here to help with a few school recommandations which offer forensic pathology courses and degrees.

College/University	Student Population	Institution Type
Ohio State University	53,715	4-year, Public
University of Florida	51,474	4-year, Public
University of Minnesota – Twin Cities	51,140	4-year, Public
Michigan State University	46,510	4-year, Public
University of South Florida	46,189	4-year, Public
New York University	42,189	4-year, Private
University of Wisconsin – Madison	41,620	4-year, Public
University of Michigan	41,028	4-year, Public
University of Washington	39,675	4-year, Public
Florida State University	38,682	4-year, Public
University of California – Los Angeles	38,220	4-year, Public
University of Arizona	38,057	4-year, Public
Temple University	35,490	4-year, Public
University of Southern California	33,747	4-year, Private
Virginia Commonwealth University	32,044	4-year, Public
Boston University	31,766	4-year, Private
Wayne State University	31,024	4-year, Public
University of California – Davis	30,568	4-year, Public
University of Tennessee	30,410	4-year, Public
Indiana University-Purdue University – Indianapolis	30,300	4-year, Public

Forensic anthropology videos

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I’ve been recently writing a few articles about forensic anthropology, including the forensic anthropology salary and the connection between forensic anthropology and osteology. However, a picture is worth a thousand words, and a video is worth a thousand pictures, so, you do the math – I figured a few videos will fit in just fine, so here they are:

A forensic anthropologist explains what this job deals with:

Another complementary video, showcasing exactly what role do forensic anthropologists play in solving crime:

An extremely useful one hour lecture about chemistry in forensic anthropology

Another interesting lecture about the principles and applications of forensic anthropology:

Well, these are the ones I came across and found really interesting and nice – they should fill up a few hours alone just to watch, so if you’re just getting into it, start by watching and understaning the basics.

Be sure to check the articles in the Forensic Anthropology series:
Forensic anthropology explained
The salary, education and requirements for a forensic anthropologist
Forensic anthropology schools
Forensic anthropology videos
How forensic anthropologists find out information from bones
Forensic Anthropology Jobs: where and job description

How forensic anthropologists find out information from bones

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As I was telling you in a previous post about forensic anthropology, one of the most important things in the field is the thorough knowledge of osteology – the study of human bones. The job description involves many things, but most of all, it’s bones, and this is what is required in virtually all cases.

So how is it exactly that you can find out information about a body just by studying its bones? I’m going to give a short explanation about how you can determine the main traits, nothing thorough, just so you can get an idea.

Osteology 101 – determining the sex

When trying to figure out the gender of the victim, forensic anthropologists look at the skull and and hip bones, as here lies the most important information. Males usually have a more prominent brow ridge, eyesockets, and jaw, and the difference in hips is fairly obvious – the female’s hips are much wider, made for childbearing.

Next step – height

This part is also relatively simple, if the skeleton is in a decent condition. Practically, all you have to do is reassemble the skeleton and measure the length of significant bones, after which 10-12 cm are added. If some bones are missing, than estimates as accurate as possible have to be made.

Age

This is where it starts to get a little tricky; generally speaking, the older the person, the smoother the skull – but that gives only an approximate result in most cases – a thorough education is necessary for acquiring the ability to do this properly, and thankfully, there are plenty of forensic anthropology schools out there which do just that.. The analysis of the wrist development is an excellent way for determining the age of children aged 13 and younger. At the 17 in males and 20 in females, the lower bone plate and the radius fuse together and soon after, the upper bone plate and radius fuse together. The bone in the body that finishes growing last is the collarbone, which ceases growth at 28 years – these are all good markers. Actually, if the victim is over 30, it becomes harder and harder to give an exact estimate of the age.

Race and weight

Weight is easy to approximate, but hard to pinpoint. All you have to do is measure the wear at certain points of the skeleton. For race, the nose gives the most important information. Caucasian nose holes are triangular, Negroid’s square, and Mongoloid’s diamond-shaped. Negroid femur bones are also straighter than other racial groups. Also, some diseases and conditions can be identified.

The hardest step – occupation

Before doing this, forensic anthropologists look to see if the victim was left handed or right handed; they do this by seeing which side has more muscle attachment. After this, perhaps the hardest work begins, one that isn’t necessary in all cases: guessing the person’s occupation. For example, if the person played an instrument such as a flute or clarinet, the teeth and bones around the mouth will be affected. A carpenter’ss or a roofer’s teeth might be clipped in front where he held nails in his mouth. They can determine a person’s shape

Well, I hope I’ve given you at least a clue of what’s going on in an average day of forensic anthropology.